Abstract
In this review is given deal with the carbon paste electrodes and its applications in electrochemical analysis. Many carbon Paste electrodes modified were studied. The major importance in this review is to a simple explanation about this form of electrodes (carbon paste electrode) which were applied it for the determination of several kinds of material in different samples by studied the slope, correlation coefficient, response time, lifetime and statistical values such as relative standard deviation, relative standard error, and recovery.
1.
Introduction
2.1
Common carbon paste
types- electrodes
Concerning traditional carbon paste blends with two key constituents, it is conceivable to recognize the current structures as per three explicit criteria:(i) the physicochemical character of the binder,(ii) the status of whether the particular carbon is changed, and(iii) consistency.
2.2 Special carbon paste forms dependent electrodes
2.2.1 Electro-active Electrodes for carbon paste
A group of carbon paste – based electrodes performing first of all in its classic formula in the middle-1970s, appearing firstly typical of community carbon paste – based electrodes [17-20], but the predecessors were largely similar a decade ago, or even mostly identical [21], consist of mixture of carbon paste with qualitatively distinct composition. In the CPE configurations, specifically a strong inorganic electrolyte, for example, concentrated arrangements of mineral acids or basic hydroxides, replaces the at first protecting and synthetically dormant sticking material [22].
2.2.2 Solid, solid comparable, carbon paste electrodes and pseudo
It isn't shock that the expanding assortment
of carbon paste has also motivated numerous researchers to detail, Further
advancement of related blends, and test, In which traditional oils have been
supplanted by different fasteners. A significant number of the terminal
substrates coming about had a somewhat thicker quality than that of
conventional CPEs (be like nutty spread as endorsed by Adams [23]. Here, the individual model can be given
quickly when the meaning "strong" or strong comparative" in CPE
is authentic and originates from the creators' papers, except for a couple of
example. The most seasoned models of as-CPE were those which purposefully
consolidated graphite powder with (I) elastic of silicone [24,25,26–27], this
had accomplished their last precision after chilly vulcanization, and was
suggested for both hydrodynamic estimations and fixed. Explicit
s-CPE worked as sensors of amperometric or finder were rather made of (ii)
emphatically atomic polyvinyl chloride [25], (iii) chloroprene elastic alkyl
phenyl resin (ration as 1:1) [27], or identical (iv) butadiene elastic [28].
Different sorts of s-CPEs were built on (v) wax of paraffin [29] or (vi) wax of
ceresin [30], which can be basically melted (together under
2.2.3 New Electrodes for Carbon Paste
Indeed, every CPE prepared from
materials previously classified as “new binders” or “new types of carbon”
[43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53], could also be regarded as new CPEs.
However, in such situations, the respective electrodes constitute more or less
the first designs that have occurred in a few instances so far and often only
experience simple characterization, that is without broader presence and usual
applications. In this group, another quintet or reports may be included [53]. On
as of late created carbon paste – developed electrode ordinarily alluded to as
carbon paste film electrodes (CPFEs) for which relating structure has been
diminished to an extremely slim film/layer of carbon (glue) associated with a
reduced terminal casing, exactly, Ni-Cr composite [54,56,57]. The glue itself
is both "very flimsy film" (STF; accomplished by decorating a blend
of two customary segments (and the going with electrode known as STF-CPE) or
comprising completely from substitute CP-parts, which is the situation for two
blends MW-CNTs +(RT)IL [55,56] and GR + (RT)IL [54], Notwithstanding GR and
ionic fluid (of the Q+PF6− type), the last likewise incorporates an extra
strong fastener with an organic detecting highlight .The sorts of carbon paste
cathodes including:
·
Diamond as the base of the
Electrodes and Diamond Paste Electrodes.
·
Electrodes of Carbon Paste and of
Carbon Nanotubes.
·
Electrodes of Carbon Paste and of Ionic
Liquids.
3. Carbon paste electrodes with some chemistry techniques
In
potentiometry Particle particular anode is portrayed as an electrode equipped
for delivering a distinction in the electrical potential among itself and a
reference terminal, the creation potential for the arrangement is relative to
the volume or convergence of the particle picked [55-56]. New particle -
particular terminals are centered around membrane by which material exchange
happens this material vehicle includes all impartial and charged complex
species or straightforward particles and electron which adds to variety in
electrostatic potential through membranes [57].
These additionally known
membrane possibilities reflect similarly particle creation and outer stage
movement. The particle specific electrode can gauge the movement and
selectivity of a given particle independent of another particle in solution [58-59].
Can be characterized Ion-particular electrode to certain
sorts as indicated by the creation and sort of the responsive film for glass
terminals fluid membrane electrodes, gas detecting electrodes, strong state
electrodes, covered wire terminals, chemical substrate electrodes [60].
Potentiometric distinguishing proof concentrated on explicit particle
electrodes gives the upsides of speed and simplicity of arranging, fast
reaction time, reasonable selectivity, wide straight dynamic run, ease online
estimation. The wider utilized electrodes of strong membrane are the
plasticized poly (vinyl chloride), (PVC) terminals which depend on development
– medication and counter – particle partners, In the readiness of the film electrode,
the shaped particle – partner was then utilize along with PVC and a proper
plasticizer. Fluid membranes, then again, are shaped from immiscible
fluids which selectivity tie certain particles, the fluid particle exchanger
can be put away in a cracked strong help that isolates the inside arrangement
of the fluid terminal from the preliminary arrangement [61]. Ion – specific
electrodes were broadly utilized in pharmaceutical compound location [62-65].
The structure of carbon paste takes into account the order of CPEs as particle
– particular fluid film type electrodes from the point of view of balance
potentiometry. The gluing fluid by and large has great capacity to separate
non-separated feeble corrosive, unbiased metal chelates or particle partners
against impartial electro dynamic species. At that point, the capacity of an
electrode including such a natural dissolvable concentrate is essentially
constrained by ionic association at the interface between the natural period of
the terminal and the example arrangement, coming about in the alleged Donnan
capacity [66]. Carbon paste based particle specific terminals (CPISEs) have
been reported and used to assess a few particles and medications, for example,
four particle exchangers for new fluoroborate CPISEs and perchlorate were
readied, that discover their application in the two anions direct
potentiometric judgments, notwithstanding observing sensors for potentiometric
particle pair arrangement based titration[67] ,the particle blending standard
was correspondingly utilized in the titrations of complex trivalent thallium
anions [68] or components setting up heteropolyanions.[69,70]. And in the voltammetric stripping study, the
choice of the key constituents for preparing the carbon paste was exceptionally
moderate and no endeavors were made to search for new substitute materials. For
most applications, the properties of customary paste blends produced using
spectroscopic paraffin oils and graphite were discovered good, for instance
electrode which utilized for assurance of follow iron (III) in pharmaceutical
compounds [71]. In 1993, new sorts of CPEs presented that contained
increasingly polar natural fluid, frequently utilized as plasticizers of
polymeric film based particle – particular electrodes. [72]. For model, a CPE
containing tricresyl phosphate was seen as perfect for the collection of some
lipophilic anions. Some intriguing utilizations of these paste were presented
around then in both the stripping voltammetry [73] and stripping
chronopotentiometry [74].
About amperometric technique, the primary carbon paste electrode alterations with movies of manganese dioxide allowed to obtain sensors for the assurance of hydrogen peroxide started toward the finish of the 1990s in collaboration with Austrian colleagues [75,77]. Nevertheless.it appeared to be increasingly doable to move all the experience gained with these CPE-based sensors to their simple screen-printed arrangements for use in method utilizing stream infusion investigation [78]. These sensors permitted the identification of hydrogen peroxide through either intervened decrease or interceded oxidation, likewise, in blend with a legitimate biocatalyst (glucose oxide was utilized in the underlying analyses) they filled in as fundamental units in the assembling of the coordinating biosensors [79-80] a related biosensor relied upon sarcosine oxidase was too reported [81]. There has additionally been investigation of adjustment with other metal oxides. Biosensors with solid properties were as of late acquired when electro impetuses were utilized as modifiers/go between dependent on the oxides of Platinum bunch metals [82-84]. Also contemplated biosensors which were relied upon dehydrogenases.
4. Carbon Paste Structure
Developing carbon paste structure are non-minimized and delicate, and must be put away in unique bodies. A carbon paste holder can be made as a very much penetrated to a short Teflon rod [70] tube from glass [85] or a syringe of a polyethylene [86] loaded up with a paste, which is reached electrically through a directing wire. These makes are exceptionally simple; however, there is one thing that makes them not extremely sensible and that is the need to top off the carbon in experimentations including a successive prohibition of the surface layer for terminal. Monien et al. [87] planned increasingly refined development which going around this tedious technique and Lindquist, [88], who recommended cylinder – driven terminal holders where the necessary amount of the paste utilized may handily be expelled from the electrode body and smoothed or remove, our testing office uses explicit types of home – made cylinder fueled carbon paste holders [89]. Gathering of the particle specific electrode dependent on graphite paste appeared in Fig.1
Figure1: Assembly
of the ion-selective electrode based on graphite paste [90]
Photo "1B" depict another type of carbon paste mini than usual electrode(CPmE) that can be created from conventional plastic pipette tips,the vertical cutting of which delivers the necessary surface region [91], this minimal size has the advantage of diminishing the utilization of carbon paste(s), and might be cheap by using certain blends from exorbitant carbon nanotubes. Some Studies on Surface modification Properties of Carbon Paste Carbon paste prepared from lipophilic gluing fluids show recognizably hydrophobic nature of their surface, containing the purported dry blends with genuinely low restricting bit content. This hydrophobicity at that point brings about conduct of various composites and redox couples at CPEs being respectably reversible or even absolutely irreversible, while similar materials estimated at common strong electrodes can show reasonable reversibility. In utilizations of voltammetric, unassuming reversibility (or irreversibility) is of model unwanted as the related expected breaking point and hence misshaped or totally covered by more noteworthy foundation flows. Notwithstanding potential changes in the gluing fluid and its substance in the paste, the level of hydrophobicity of CPEs can be decreased by incomplete or complete evacuation of the fastener surface; e.g.by presentation of the carbon paste surface to extraordinary potential temporarily. Beneath these conditions, contingent upon the expected extremity, the outside of carbon particles in changed into hydrophilic useful gatherings f - C=O for instance, - C-O" or - C=OH+ that are fit to repulse the fluid layer of lipophilic. The impact of this surface adjustment, too known as electrolytic actuation (or anodic and cathodic polarization, individually) can be investigated with advantage through relative estimations of dynamic and un enacted CPEs. Cyclic voltammetry of either hydrazinium particle or ascorbic corrosive might be suggested both speak to ordinary irreversible frameworks with "touchy" energy to surface condition at a CPE.A appropriately boundaries, fundamentally exceptionally high initiation potential or its application for longer timeframes may as of now cause excessively "extreme" changes in the terminal surface of the carbon paste joined by increment lingering flows. The at first anticipated valuable effect of the initiation procedure is rather totally nullified [92]. Application of Carbon Paste Electrodes In this paper had been reported the application of carbon paste electrodes to evaluation different materials with using various techniques such as voltammetry, amperometric and potentiometry, Table 1 shown the type of carbon paste electrodes construction for potentiometric
Table 1: Application
of carbon paste electrodes for potentiometric measurements
Analyte |
Type of CPE |
Technique |
Results |
Ref. |
|
Ferricyanide |
Modified Glassy Carbon Paste Electrodes |
Amperometric and Cyclic voltammetry |
Linearity range (M)= 2.5×10-7-5×10-4 and 5×10-7 and 5×10-7 -5×10-4 Correlation Coefficient=0.9906 and
0.9972 Sensitivity (µA mM -1
cm2)=188 and 99 %RSD=6 and 7 Response Time (sec)=15 |
[93] |
|
Dopamine |
Graphene–chitosan nanocomposite modified carbon paste electrode |
Cyclic voltammograms |
Linear Equation :Y=552.38-49.45x and Y=1.81+0.28x Correlation Coefficient=0.9911 and 0.9961 |
[94] |
|
Cadmium in water |
Carbon paste electrode modified |
Stripping voltammetry |
Linear Equation :Y=31.21X+1.154 Correlation Coefficient=0.998 PH=5 |
[95] |
|
Triblock
copolymer as directing agent and tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as silica
source |
Carbon Electrode |
Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedence
spectroscopy |
BET surface areas of the
mesoporous silicas= 913.26 m2/g and 450.37 m2/g for SBA-15 and
SBA-16 |
[96] |
|
Nitrate and Ammonium |
Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes Based on Graphite Paste |
Potentiometric |
Linear
range (mol/L)=10-1-10-6 and 10-1-10-5 Coefficient
of determination (R2)=0.991 and 0.995 Limit
of detection (mol/L)= <10-6 and < -10-5 Response
time (s)= <15 for both Life time(month)= 6-12 for both |
[90] |
|
Phenol |
Clay- Carbone Paste Electrode Modified |
Electrochemical Sensor |
Detection limit(mol/L)= 2.041×10-5and 0.952×10-6 Coefficient of
determination (R2)=0.853 and 0.882 |
[97] |
|
Hydrogen peroxide |
Ionic liquid modified carbon paste electrode |
Voltammetry and Amperometric |
Linear
range = 35-2000(µM) and 2-30(Mm) Limit
of detection (µM)= 15.0 and 2.60 Response
time (s)= 20 and 4 |
[98] |
|
Nitrate in Drinking Water |
Carbon Paste Electrode |
Cyclic voltammetry |
Potential range = +1.0 to -1.0 V (vs. Ag/AgCl).) PH=7 Oxidation peak =at +0.14 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) |
[99] |
|
Folic acid in presence of Dopamine and Ascorbic Acid |
Poly(Alanine) MCPE |
Cyclic voltammetry |
Linear
range = 10-40(µM) and 50-80 Limit
of detection (µM)= 3.40 and 0.780 |
[100] |
|
Heavy Metals |
Carbon Paste Electrode |
Square Wave Voltammetry |
Linear Equation :Y= 35.76 [Pb(II)] (μmol l-1)+0.0295
and 75.23 [Cd(II)] (μmol l-1)+0.075 Correlation Coefficient=0.9852 and 0.9802 Limit
of detection (Mole/L)= 5.7 and 8.24 %RSD=6.8and 5.0 |
[101] |
|
Atrazine |
Polyaniline Carbon Paste Electrode |
Voltermetric and Amperometric |
Limit
of detection (µM)= 0.3 |
[102] |
|
Captopril |
Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes Paste Electrode |
Voltammetry |
Limit
of detection (µmole/L)= 0.1 Sensitivity (μA μmol-1 L)=0.0252 Correlation Coefficient=0.994, 0.9967,0.9910,0.9970,0.9951, |
[103] |
|
phenolic estrogenic compounds |
Clay modified carbon paste electrode |
Cyclic voltammetry |
Linear
range(M) = 7.26×10−6 - 3.87×10−7 Limit
of detection (M)= 9.2 ×10-7 Correlation Coefficient=0.9963 |
[104] |
|
Ascorbic acid |
Carbon paste electrode modified with iron(III) ions |
Cyclic voltammetry |
Linear
range(mmoleL- )
= 0.0- 1.4 Equation I(μA) = 7.6286 [H2A] (mmol L-1) +1.9583 Correlation Coefficient=0.9996 |
[105] |
|
Nitrite in Water |
Carbon paste electrodes Modified Diatomite |
Cyclic voltammetry and Amperometric |
linear domain(Mm)= 0.0001-0.1 Limit
of detection (µM)= 9.10 Sensitivity( mA M-1)=9.88 |
[106] |
|
Methyldopa in Urine and pharmaceutical formulation |
Graphene nanosheet paste electrode |
Voltammetry |
Linear
range (mol/L)= 9.0 × 10−8 - 5.0 × 10−4 Limit
of detection (mol/L)= 5.0 × 10−8 |
[107] |
|
Ultra-trace amounts of silver in water |
New modified carbon paste |
Differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry |
Linear range (μg L-1 )
=0.001–100 Limit of Detection(ngL-1)=1.1 %RSD=1.5 %Er= -1.3 |
[108] |
|
Lead |
Tricalcium Phosphate Apatite Modified Carbon Paste
Electrode |
Square -wave voltammetry |
Linear Equation: Y = 0.0073x + 1.3076 Correlation
Coefficient= 0.906 Limit of
Detection(M)= 4.3 × 10-6 |
[109] |
|
Vitamin C |
Carbon Paste Electrode Modified by Multi walled Carbon
Nanotube |
Square-wave
Voltammetry |
Limit of
Detection(M)= 4.3 × 10-6 PH=5.0 %RE=96-102 |
[110] |
|
Copper(II) |
Etioporphyrin I dihydrobromide Carbon Paste Electrode |
Potentiometry |
Linear range (moleL-1
) = 1.28 × 10-6–1.28 ×10-2
Slope= 30.30 mV per decade Limit of Detection(moleL-1)=
8.99 × 10-7 Range of PH=4.5-8.5 Response time(sec)= 5 |
[111] |
|
Anthrone |
Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide Surfactant Modified
Carbon Paste Electrode |
Cyclic Voltammetry |
Linear range
(moleL-1 ) =3×10-5- 5×10-5 and
6×10-5 -1.7×10-4 Limit of Detection(moleL-1)= 21 × 10-7 PH=6.5 |
[112] |
|
Cadmium Oxide |
Nanoparticles Modified Carbon Paste Electrode |
Cyclic Voltammetry |
Linear range
(moleL-1 ) =5.0 × 10−8 - 5.0 × 10−6 Cathodic transfer
coefficient = 0.40 Electron transfer
rate constant(s-1) = 1.47 Limit of Detection(moleL-1)= 21 × 10-7 PH=7 |
[113] |
|
Uric Acid |
Carbon Paste Electrodes Modified by Molecularly Imprinted Polymer |
Potentiometric Sensor |
Linear range (moleL-1
) = 10-6-10-3 Limit of Detection(moleL-1)= 3.03×10-6 % precision= 1.36-2.03 % accuracy= 63.9-166 |
[114] |
|
Tyrosine |
Carbon paste Electrode |
Cyclic Voltammetry in a Flow Injection System |
Limit of
Detection(moleL-1)= 6.6×10-9
pH=7.0 potential scan rate=1 Vs-1 Accumulation time=0.5s Accumulation
potential=-500 mV |
[115] |
|
As(V) from aqueous solutions |
Carbon paste electrode with the pristine bentonite and
hybrid material (HDTMA-modified bentonite |
Electrochemical sensor |
Linear Equation: Y = 0.9172x + 0.5863 and Y=0.084+10.38 Correlation
Coefficient= 0.9997 and 0.991 |
[116] |
|
Flavoxate Muscle Relaxant Drug |
Carbon paste Electrode |
Potentiometry |
Linear range
(moleL-1 ) =1.39×10-5-1×10-2
and 1×10-5-1x10-2 Limit of
Detection(moleL-1)=1.39×10-5
and 1×10-6 Response time(sec)= 5.0-7.0 %Re=97.2-101.0 and 98.1-101 |
[117] |
|
Tissue O2 |
Carbon paste Electrode |
Cyclic Voltammetry Amperometric |
Applied potential(mV)=-650 Sensitivity(nA /µM) = -1.49±0.01 Correlation Coefficient= > 0.99 |
[118] |
|
Antihyperlipidemic Simvastatin in Biological Samples |
Carbon Paste Electrode Bulk-Modified with Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes |
Scanning Electrochemical |
Linear range (moleL-1
) = 2.4 × 10-7 %RSD=4.8 % Re=99.7 and 99.5 |
[119] |
|
Copper(II) |
Carbon paste Electrode |
Differential Pulse Voltammetry |
Linear range (nmoleL-1
) = 0.5- 10 Limit of Detection(nmoleL-1)= 0.237 Correlation Coefficient=0.9997 %RSD=1.42 |
[120] |
|
Cesium |
Modified Carbon Paste Electrode of Cesium |
Potentiometric Method |
Slope(mV.decade-1)
=58±0.5 Linear range (moleL-1
) =1×10-6-1×10-1 Response time(sec)=35 PH=4.0-8.0 Life time(months)=3 |
[121] |
5. Conclusions
There are several electrochemical techniques
have been described for the recognition of drugs in a variation of tests, due
to it is a rapid method for determination the drug levels from biological, food
or water samples is required worldwide. Electrochemical sensors modification
showed a great increase in current response, stability, selectivity with high
sensitivity. This paper discusses primarily several types of electrochemical
sensors. Carbon paste electrodes are the economical from of preparation and present
easy ways, in addition they as well show the possibility of rapid renewal of
the active surface, eliminating the fouling effect. It is fully knowing that an
oily binder is used in the preparation of a CPE to make the paste. This mineral
oil is an isolating substance ,and perhaps the reason why some kinds the
reported little current range .The selection of electrochemical sensors for
drug determination should also be have an effect by the kind of real tests used
in applications, any of the applications require minimum detection limits ,some
need method that is extremely selective and stable, and some require large
range of concentrations, though another applications must cover concentration
ranges greater than μ molar drug levels.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Department of Chemistry,
College of Sciences, Tikrit University and Department of Chemistry, College of
Education for pure Sciences Tikrit University, for the support.
Abbreviation
CPEs |
Carbon Paste Electrodes |
MHCFs |
Solid Metal
Heaxacyanaferrates |
P-CPEs |
Psudo- Carbon Paste Electrodes |
CPEFs |
Carbon Paste Film Electrodes |
STF-CPE |
Super Thin Film - Carbon Paste
Electrodes |
MW-CNTs |
Multi Walled –Carbon nanotubes |
PVC |
Polyvinyl(chloride) |
CPISEs |
Carbon Paste-based Ion-Selective Electrodes |
GPGrE |
Carbon Paste groove Electrodes |
CPmE |
Carbon Paste mini-Electrodes |
PH |
Measure of the acidity or basicity of
aqueous solutions |
%RSD |
Relative standard deviation |
%Er |
Relative Error |
%Re |
Recovery |
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